5. Theoretical background and inspiration for learning circles

As noted in the description of learning circles, their theoretical and disciplinary foundation is found in the participatory research tradition of action research.

Action research is the name given to research that aims to change and develop practice. As a research method, action research first emerged in the 1940s when the psychologist Kurt Lewin adopted the term. Lewin and his research group presented three of the key ingredients of action research:

With his motto “nothing is as practical as a good theory”, he sought to find theories and methods that could be useful when making changes to practice (Lahdenperä, 1999). Lewin (1946) developed a cyclical learning model (plan-act-observe-reflect) in order to portray this type of working process, which has been a cornerstone in the development of action research methods and approaches.

In the 1960s and 1970s, interest in action research as a way to change society increased. Educator Paulo Freire is regarded as the foremost proponent of this strand of social-focused action research. He is known for his work on literacy campaigns and adult education initiatives among Brazil’s poorest members of society.

He combined practical, educational activities with the simultaneous performance of social analyses. His work has inspired an emancipatory approach in which the focus of the action research is on underlying social and political standpoints, such as highlighting groups whose voices are not heard among decision makers (Mattson, 2004).

The critical action research tradition known as Participatory Action Research (PAR) is based on the idea that research is both emancipatory and a tool to change society. According to Habermas (1974), this critical approach has an emancipatory outcome through highlighting unsatisfactory states of affairs so that people wish to bring about change.

The popularity of PAR increased in the Nordic countries during the 1970s, which may be due to the contemporary ideals around education that were prevalent in the region (Gustavsen, 2001). In addition to compulsory primary and secondary education throughout the Nordic countries, there is also a long tradition of lifelong adult education. Dialogue, participation and critical thinking were regarded as important factors that would encourage citizens to feel jointly responsible for society. It was through various study circles inspired by this educational tradition’s democratic perspective that PAR slowly began to first spread in the Nordic region (Rönnerman & Salo, 2014).

A number of Swedish researchers (Holmstrand & Härnsten, 2003; Persson, 2008) believe that the research circle as a form of learning circle is linked to the educational tradition found in the Swedish labour and trade union movement where the study circle was – and remains – an important feature. With roots in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, study circles came to play a significant role in the emergence of popular movements in Sweden. The very first research circles were established to organise encounters between scholarly and experience-based knowledge. Research circles were to be based on the principle of mutual exchange between researchers and practitioners, with activities in the circle being based on research-focused activities.

The critical approach of PAR has also served as a model for participant-based action research in a Scandinavian form such as learning circles. Elden & Levin (1991) discuss “co-generative learning” based on a learning process that strengthens participants in three ways:

A) participants identify insights, understanding and opportunities in relation to their social world;

B) participants learn how to learn more; and

C) participants learn to create new opportunities for action.

A learning circle thus becomes a tool for skills development, professionalisation and business and organisational development. Both the actual situation and the context in which practice is set constitute important objects of development.